by Deirdre Cobbin
The Discussion Paper A Fair Chance for All (NBEET/DEET 1990) presents national equity objectives in relation to women as being to improve the balance of participation of women in higher education with particular emphasis on nontraditional courses (engineering, business studies, economics and science) where nontraditional is identified by the arbitrary definition of less than 40 per cent female participation. Such a definition of nontraditional, based on participation rates is contentious in itself. Further, if it is applied to the broader university context postgraduate studies and academic staff higher education institutions overall must be regarded as non-traditional for women. Indeed they have always been so.
Repeatedly attention has been drawn to the low proportion of women
in senior academic positions in Australian (and overseas) universities
(eg Bacchi 1992, Singh 1993). From 1977 to 1987 the increases
in proportions of women at various levels and their representation
for each level were:
|
Appointment level | % increase | % of level |
|
Professors/ Assoc. Professors | 2.8 | 5.2 |
|
Senior Lecturers/ Lecturers | 6.7 | 17.8 |
|
Senior Tutors/ Tutors (Associate Lecturers) | 9.7 | 44.4 |
The level with the highest gains, tutors/senior tutors, generally involves untenured appointments. The continued low representation of women is often viewed as the result of the financially restrictive climate for higher education where jobs are simply not showing rapid turnover or particular growth. However some remain unconvinced by this argument (eg Bacchi 1992) pointing out for example, that the high turnover in university staff throughout the 1980s did not result in a significant change in representation of women.
Table 1 summarises statistics for percentages of female academic
staff members across all faculties in higher education institutions
for 1988 to 1993 (DEET 1994). It shows that, even after amalgamation
when an increase in female staff resulted from the inclusion of
former Colleges of Advanced Education (CAEs) where more female
staff were involved than in the higher status universities, women's
representation,
particularly at career ranks, still remained low.
Table 1. Percentage of women in academic staff classifications in Australian higher education institutions, 1988 - 1993.
| Year | Above Senior Lecturer |
Senior Lecturer | Lecturer | Below Lecturer | All Levels |
| 1988 | 7.0 | 14.1 | 32.7 | 50.1 | 27.3 |
| 1989 | 7.9 | 14.4 | 34.3 | 51.0 | 27.8 |
| 1990 | 9.1 | 16.2 | 37.6 | 51.2 | 30.1 |
| 1991 | 10.8 | 17.8 | 38.5 | 51.2 | 30.8 |
| 1992 | 10.1 | 19.1 | 39.8 | 51.3 | 31.9 |
| 1993 | 10.7 | 20.5 | 40.3 | 52.0 | 32.6 |
The percentage of female staff classified as academic at all Australian higher education institutions increased from 27.3 per cent in 1988 to 32.6 per cent in 1993. Women were concentrated in the more junior ranks and their proportional representation decreased markedly with increasing seniority. This was particularly evident in the differences in representation of women among lecturers (40.3 per cent in 1993) and senior lecturers (20.5 per cent in 1993). Gaining senior lecturer status has long been regarded by many in academe as the attainment of a career grade. In 1993 only 21 per cent of women employed as academic staff had achieved this status compared with 52 per cent of male colleagues.
The under representation of women as academic or senior management staff in higher education is less than encouraging for promotion of women's participation in nontraditional fields of study. It reflects the extent to which university culture remains androcentric and questions the sincerity of some universities as employers committed to equal employment opportunity.
Continued domination of the university hierarchy by men is difficult to explain in view of institutional mission statements and strategic plans that promulgate affirmative action and equal opportunity endeavours. Indeed, in the words of Ian Lowe, Professor of Science and Technology at Griffith University:
The real test of the success of Affirmative Action is when there are as many incompetent women in senior management as there are incompetent men in these ranks now.
A second area that suggests higher education institutions remain nontraditional for women is the female participation rates in higher degree programs in all faculties. This is also a contributing factor to the lower representation of women among academic staff for which higher degrees are normally a prerequisite. Tables 2 and 3 illustrate this point, showing number and percentage of women commencing and completing doctoral, masters and bachelors level studies in 1993 and 1992 respectively, reported in Selected Higher Education Statistics 1993 (DEET 1994).
In 1993, women made up 38 per cent of students commenc-ing doctoral studies. In four broad study fields (Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences: 49 per cent, Education: 45 per cent, Health: 54 per cent, and Veterinary Science: 54 per cent) women's representation at this level of study exceeded DEET's nontraditional level set at 40 per cent.
By comparison, women's representations in these study fields at the bachelors pass completion levels were 70, 78, 79 and 56 per cent respectively. Of these four, Veterinary Science was the only field with similar undergraduate and doctoral participation rates for women. The relative rates of postgraduate participation were low in the three other fields where well over two thirds of undergraduate completions were women. Women's proportional representation tended to decrease with increasingly higher levels of study, a pattern more obvious in the 1992 completions.
Table 2. Women as a percentage of students commencing doctoral,
masters and bachelors degrees in 1993. N = All commencements (women and men).
| Field of Study | PhD | Masters | Bachelors | |||||||
| Research | Coursework | Honours | Pass | |||||||
| % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | |
| Agriculture, Animal Husbandry |
34 | 191 | 31 | 182 | 23 | 125 | 37 | 19 | 39 | 1,876 |
| Architecture, Building |
32 | 62 | 24 | 119 | 24 | 361 | 50 | 4 | 34 | 3,000 |
| Arts, Humanities, Social Sciences |
49 | 1,248 | 56 | 1,433 | 67 | 2,881 | 62 | 538 | 68 | 34,437 |
| Business, Administration, Economics |
28 | 354 | 33 | 323 | 30 | 5,326 | 48 | 116 | 47 | 30,531 |
| Education | 45 | 413 | 62 | 623 | 62 | 2,829 | 84 | 116 | 76 | 15,943 |
| Engineering, Surveying |
13 | 690 | 15 | 762 | 10 | 988 | 7 | 69 | 14 | 10,828 |
| Health | 54 | 600 | 61 | 357 | 72 | 1,722 | 63 | 109 | 79 | 18,914 |
| Law, Legal Studies |
39 | 70 | 35 | 142 | 42 | 640 | 62 | 13 | 51 | 4,280 |
| Science | 33 | 1,490 | 34 | 985 | 29 | 1,346 | 43 | 460 | 43 | 22,529 |
| Veterinary Science |
54 | 61 | 36 | 25 | 23 | 35 | 73 | 11 | 66 | 328 |
| Total | 38 | 5,179 | 43 | 4,951 | 45 | 16,253 | 54 | 1,455 | 56 | 142,669 |
Table 3. Women as a percentage of students completing doctoral,
masters and bachelors degrees in 1992. N = All completions (women
and men).
| Field of Study | PhD | Masters | Bachelors | |||||||
| Research | Coursework | Honours | Pass | |||||||
| % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | |
| Agriculture, Animal Husbandry |
22 | 83 | 17 | 86 | 13 | 70 | 47 | 74 | 33 | 858 |
| Architecture, Building |
9 | 11 | 19 | 16 | 24 | 219 | 56 | 81 | 37 | 1,700 |
| Arts, Humanities, Social Sciences |
47 | 300 | 55 | 266 | 60 | 1,359 | 64 | 2,133 | 70 | 17,478 |
| Business, Administration, Economics |
12 | 41 | 24 | 45 | 28 | 2,467 | 35 | 590 | 45 | 17,167 |
| Education | 52 | 98 | 57 | 133 | 60 | 1,362 | 78 | 93 | 78 | 10,873 |
| Engineering, Surveying |
13 | 184 | 10 | 189 | 6 | 510 | 15 | 340 | 11 | 3,928 |
| Health | 49 | 197 | 52 | 106 | 62 | 556 | 58 | 217 | 79 | 9,983 |
| Law, Legal Studies |
27 | 11 | 27 | 26 | 32 | 256 | 55 | 160 | 48 | 1,942 |
| Science | 29 | 568 | 33 | 260 | 32 | 465 | 41 | 2,075 | 43 | 9,829 |
| Veterinary Science |
28 | 29 | 33 | 12 | 57 | 21 | 53 | 78 | 56 | 248 |
| Total | 34 | 1,522 | 37 | 1,139 | 41 | 7,285 | 49 | 5,841 | 58 | 74,006 |
The above findings indicated that the major representation of women occurs in undergraduate courses in higher education institutions. Achieving these undergraduate percentages has been regarded as an important success for educational equity policy and practice (DEET 1989, 1991). However examination of the modifications to the higher education sector associated with these gains suggests a more conservative interpretation in view of the nature of the gains and among which courses they have been achieved.
1988 was the first year when the number of women exceeded the number of men enrolled in higher education (DEET 1989). The proportion of female students has gradually risen from 40.6 per cent in 1975, representing a 91 per cent increase in actual numbers of women between 1975 and 1988 compared with a 25 per cent increase in the number of men.
Two important factors that contributed to this increase were the increase in mature age women students enrolling in part time and external studies in the late 1970s (a result of decrease in demand from full time school leaver enrolments) and the transfer of basic nursing education from hospitals to CAEs in the mid 1980s. In 1988 over 13,000 students were enrolled in basic nursing studies at CAEs compared with 1,300 in 1984 (DEET 1989). Women made up about 85 per cent of these students.
Women's enrolments have continued to show a faster growth rate than those for men, rising to 53 per cent in 1990. Arts and Education continued to be the primary broad fields of study for women. With an increasing attraction of women to the health field of study, following the transfer of nursing to the higher education sector, Arts and Education attracted a smaller proportion of women (eg 72 per cent in 1979, 50 per cent in 1990) although this reflected more the increase in overall participation by women (due to inclusion of nursing programs in higher education) rather than a decrease in their enrolments in Arts and Education courses. In 1987 overall enrolments in higher education slowed and showed an increase in full time and a decrease in part time and external modes. Introduction of the Higher Education Administration Charge was important here.
Table 4 shows the percentage of female undergraduate enrolments for the higher education sector for 1987 to 1993 inclusive. (Undergraduate courses include all bachelors honours, bachelors pass, diploma, associate diploma, other award courses, enabling and non award. Data provided by the Division of Higher Education DEET.) In 1987 and 1988, prior to amalgamation of CAEs with universities the enrolments are shown separately for these two divisions.
Table 4. Percentage of female undergraduate enrolments
in higher education, 1987 - 1993.
| Year | Percent of total undergraduate enrolments | ||
| University | CAE | Total | |
| 1987 | 49.4 | 52.9 | 51.3 |
| 1988 | 50.7 | 53.4 | 52.2 |
| 1989 | 52.9 | ||
| 1990 | 53.6 | ||
| 1991 | 54.2 | ||
| 1992 | 54.5 | ||
| 1993 | 54.4 | ||
The data show an increased representation of women in undergraduate
courses over the seven year period. The higher representation
of women in CAEs evident in 1987 and 1988 no doubt contributed
to the increase
in the combined higher education percentage from 1989. In universities
in 1988, women had succeeded in achieving just over half the university
undergraduate enrolments. With the inclusion of the CAEs, women's
representa-tion in higher education climbed to 52.9 per cent in
1989 and plateaued from 1991 to 1993 with percentages of 54.2
to 54.4.
How much of these gains actually reflect gains made in those areas of higher education that were traditionally offered by universities prior to the abolition of the binary divide? Two major study areas for women at CAEs comprised teacher education and later nursing. While these courses have changed with upgrading to university status, they serve the same or similar vocational functions as their college predecessors.
Table 5 shows the percentage enrolment by year from 1989 to 1993 of women in undergraduate courses in higher education institutions first, when all courses are included and separately when all enrolments (men and women) in teacher education and nursing programs are excluded. Teacher education programs include initial teacher education (pre-service) and post-initial teacher education. Nursing programs include nursing-basic and nursing-post basic.
Table 5. Undergraduate representation of women overall, in teacher
education (TE) courses, in nursing studies (NS) courses, and in
all programs excluding TE and NS courses, 1989 1993.
| Female Undergraduate Enrolments | ||
| Overall as % total | Overall excluding TE and NS as % total excluding TE and NS | |
| 1989 | 52.9 | 46.9 |
| 1990 | 53.6 | 47.7 |
| 1991 | 54.2 | 48.3 |
| 1992 | 54.5 | 48.8 |
| 1993 | 54.4 | 48.9 |
When all enrolments (men and women) in teacher education and nursing courses are excluded from undergraduate comparisons, women's participation remains at less than 50 per cent among university undergraduate courses. It has increased from 46.9 per cent in 1989 to 48.8 in 1992 and 48.9 in 1993. Amalgamation of CAEs with universities has given the appearance of increased female participation in higher education (ie in traditional university studies). However it has merely shifted the boundaries of what is defined as a university study field, rather like an academic gerrymander. Certainly, teaching and nursing diplomas have been academically upgraded to bachelor degree status. However it is questionable that this has led to an enhanced status of the stereotypic female courses and careers of teaching and nursing. Men remain unattracted to the fields. Nursing programs attract less than one per cent of male undergraduates and teacher education, less than three per cent of men to undergraduate courses. By comparison, these fields of study made up 15 per cent of all female enrolments in 1989 and 14 per cent in 1993.
Thanks to Gretchen Poiner and Diana Temple for their assistance with this project.
Bacchi C (1992) The Brick Wall: Why so few women become senior academics, Australian Universities Review, 32: 36-41.
DEET (1989) Female Students, Higher Education Series Report No 1, Canberra: AGPS.
DEET (1991) Female Students, Higher Education Series Update No 1, Canberra: AGPS.
DEET (1994) Selected Higher Education Statistics 1993, Canberra: AGPS.
NBEET/DEET (1990) A Fair Chance For All: National and Institutional Planning for Equity in Higher Education, Canberra: AGPS.
Singh P (1993) Feminisms, Gender Equity and the Academy: Telling tales and constructing truths. AIWRAP Conference, Brisbane, Griffith University.